ABSTRACT
Plastic
pollution is one of today’s great environmental challenges. Plastic pollution
threatens not only the environment, but also our health and that of future
generations. The world is facing a plastic crisis. Plastic pollution is found
all around the globe. Plastics are negatively affecting people and the
environment at each stage of their lifecycle – extraction of fossil fuel,
production, manufacturing, use, recycling, and disposal. The impacts are felt
in a wide range of areas, including on biodiversity, climate change, human
health and human rights. Nonetheless, sufficient evidence already exists to
show that immediate and widespread action must be taken to reduce plastic
release to the environment, and thus limit future harm.
INTRODUCTION
The
world’s first-ever man-made plastic was introduced in 1862, by Alexander
Parkes. Ever since then the manufacture of plastic has become very important in
all manufacturing industries. The reason for its popularity is none other than
its cheap production cost, because after its introduction all manufacturers
hurriedly turned towards the production of plastic as the most convenient and
easiest way to fulfil their industrial demands. In the initial years of its
introduction, plastic was only used to make combs, buttons etc. but as time
progressed, new developments were made and today plastic is used in the
large-scale production of medical equipment, construction materials, consumer
goods, aerospace etc. But as the demand for plastic and plastic products
sky-rocketed, so did the threat to the health and safety of humans, animals and
even the environment did. The production of plastic was accompanied by an
unwelcomed guest, plastic pollution. Plastic pollution is significantly
changing the world we live in now, it is not only effecting the environment but
also us, humans.
Plastics
are nowadays essential across many aspects of modern life, for applications
including, but not limited to, healthcare, technology, construction and
performance clothing. Plastics have significant beneficial properties that are
difficult to obtain using other materials, for example depending on the polymer
type, it is possible to heat, sterilise and manipulate plastics while
maintaining their structural properties. Furthermore, they can replace
otherwise unsustainable products derived from animals, such as ivory,
tortoiseshell or fur. Due to their low weight, plastics also produce fewer
carbon emissions during transport than alternative materials such as glass.
Nonetheless, their cheap and disposable nature often leads them to be used and
discarded unnecessarily. Never have the conflicting advantages and
disadvantages of plastics been more apparent than during the COVID-19 pandemic,
during which time plastic-based PPE and packaging have helped to prevent the
spread of the virus, while simultaneously leading to a measurable increase in
related plastic debris in the environment. Despite widespread awareness that
excessive use and mismanagement of plastics is leading to global contamination
and environmental damage, plastic production continues to soar. Cumulatively,
more plastics were produced between the years 2005 and 2017 than in the
previous 50 years (Geyer et al., 2017) . Globally, waste management systems are
struggling to cope with the resulting influx of waste, and it was estimated
that in 2016 alone, up to 23 million tonnes of plastics entered aquatic
ecosystems (Borrelle et al., 2020). Even with ambitious reduction targets, by
2030 this amount is predicted to double (Borrelle et al., 2020), with a
predicted increase of 300–400% by 2050 (Geyer et al., 2017). We know plastics
to be persistent and pervasive throughout the environment, from the deepest
parts of the ocean to the tops of the highest and most remote mountains.
However, despite the existing knowledge on plastics, there is plenty that we do
not yet know. We are also discovering that plastics are not inert as previously
thought, as they commonly leach toxic plasticiser chemicals, aggregate with
other materials and form chemical and biological associations. In addition to
microplastics, nanoplastics (tissues, and a high surface area to volume ratio
leading to increased associations with chemicals, overall making them
potentially more hazardous than larger sized plastics. Despite these concerns,
based on available analytical techniques, nanoplastics are currently very
difficult to detect within environmental samples. These uncertainties make one
wonder what we might still be missing. The question of whether we know ‘enough’
about plastic pollution can be considered within two distinct themes: research and
action.
PLASTIC CRISIS
PLASTICS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
Once
plastic reaches the environment in the form of macro- or microplastics, it
contaminates and accumulates in food chains through agricultural soils,
terrestrial and aquatic food chains, and the water supply. This environmental
plastic can easily leach toxic additives or concentrate toxins already in the
environment, making them bioavailable again for direct or indirect human
exposure. As plastic particles degrade, new surface areas are exposed, allowing
continued leaching of additives from the core to the surface of the particle in
the environment and the human body. Microplastics entering the human body via
direct exposures through ingestion or inhalation can lead to an array of health
impacts, including inflammation, genotoxicity, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and
necrosis, which are linked to an array of negative health outcomes including
cancer, cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory bowel disease, diabetes,
rheumatoid arthritis, chronic inflammation, auto-immune conditions,
neuro-degenerative diseases, and stroke.
TOXIC CHEMICALS IN PLASTIC
To
date, it has been estimated that around 13,000 chemicals are used to make
plastic, with the most commonly used being monomers, processing aids and
additives. Out of those 13,000 chemicals, only
3,200 are verified to be chemicals of potential concern, while hazard
data is missing for 6,000 chemicals, which can potentially be hazardous. A
growing body of evidence points to the health risks posed by plastic additives.
These include endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), which are linked to
infertility, obesity, diabetes, prostate or breast cancer, thyroid problems and
increased risk of cardiovascular disease and stroke, among others. Other health
conditions linked to additives include reproductive, growth, and cognitive impairment
and neurodevelopment disorders.
Bisphenol A (BPA):
BPA is commonly used in making water bottles. It is a potent endocrine disruptor and one of the highest volume chemicals produced worldwide. BPA only takes about six hours to pass through the body, showing the exposure extent. However, it disrupts the normal functioning of the endocrine system in humans. As the endocrine system regulates several vital functions of the body, its disruption might cause the following problems:
•
Bad metabolism.
•
Problems with digestion.
•
Mood swings.
•
Sleep disturbances.
•
Irregular heartbeat.
•
Fertility and reproductive problems.
Phthalates:
The other chemical that has been found to leach from plastics and enters the human body is phthalates, which are used as plastic softeners. They produce soft vinyl products like blood bags, IV tubes, surgical gloves, breathing tubes, vinyl clothing, emulsion paint, flooring, printing inks, footwear, and food wrap. Unfortunately, phthalates cause adverse effects through the release of dioxins and mercury, and they are linked to the following health conditions:
- Asthma.
- Reproductive malformations.
- Developmental problems.
- Disruption of the endocrine system.
- Cancer.
- Hormonal imbalance and changes.
- Infertility.
- Immune system impairment.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC):
PVC is commonly used in packaging food, pacifiers, toys, water pipes, inflatable bathtubs, cosmetic and toiletries containers, tiles, and shower curtains. It can cause:
•
Birth deformations.
•
Bronchitis.
•
Ulcers.
•
Diseases of the skin.
•
Deafness.
•
Vision problems.
•
Liver problems.
•
Indigestion.
•
Genetic mutations
- Heavy metals like lead, cadmium, mercury, bromine, and other metals are added to plastic as fillers, pigments, stabilizers, and retardants. These heavy metals are released into the atmosphere or leached into the soil and water on burning plastic waste. Exposure to heavy metals in childhood causes:
- Impaired nervous system
- Kidney dysfunction
- Poor mental development
Polystyrene:
Polystyrene is used in packaging meat, fish, yogurt, and cheese. Some other products made from it are foam packaging, disposable spoons and forks, building insulation, paints, serving trays and plates, disposable cups, and clear containers for storing biscuits. Polystyrene enters the body through food and is stored in body fat, and is believed to cause:
- Eyes, nose, and ear irritation.
- Dizziness
- Increases the risk of blood cancer
Polyethylene (PET):
It is mainly used in making water bottles and soda bottles. The other products that are made using polyethylene are chewing gum, drink and coffee stirrers, plastic bags, toys, and squeezy bottles. They are suspected of being carcinogenic.
Polyester
Sanitary napkins, diapers, bedding, and clothing are made using polyester. They are known to cause:
- •Eye irritation.
- Respiratory tract problems.
- Skin rashes.
Urea-Formaldehyde:
It is mainly used in building insulation, plywood, and finishing fabric. Inhaling formaldehyde causes:
- Cough.
- Throat swelling.
- Watery eyes.
- Headaches.
- Difficulty breathing.
- Skin rashes.
- Fatigue.
- Birth deformations.
- Genetic mutations.
WASTE MANAGEMENT
All
plastic waste management technologies (including incineration, co-incineration,
gasification, and pyrolysis) result in the release of toxic metals, such as
lead and mercury, organic substances (dioxins and furans), acid gases, and
other toxic substances to the air, water, and soils. All such technologies lead
to direct and indirect exposure to toxic substances for workers and nearby
communities, including through inhalation of contaminated air, direct contact
with contaminated soil or water, and ingestion of foods that were grown in an
environment polluted with these substances. Toxins from emissions, fly ash, and
slag in a burn pile can travel long distances and deposit in soil and water, eventually
entering human bodies after being accumulated in the tissues of plants and
animals.
CONCLUSION
It
is nearly impossible to avoid plastics because they are everywhere. They are
present in food and beverage containers, cosmetics containers, pens, interiors
of cars, toys, bags, shoes, adhesives, lubricants, and medical devices.
Fortunately, many options exist for reducing the amount of plastic one can come
into contact with. Every step can help eliminate toxic chemicals that can
positively impact health by reducing the number of chemicals in the body.
Furthermore, ditching plastic products will lead to less plastic demand and,
therefore less plastic production.
REFERENCE
Plastic and Human Health: A Lifecycle Approach to Plastic Pollution - Center for International Environmental Law (ciel.org)
Plastics and Human Health | Plastics and the Environment Series – Geneva Environment Network
Plastic pollution: When do we know enough? - ScienceDirect
How to Avoid Toxic Chemicals in Plastics – MADE SAFE a program of Nontoxic Certified
Plastic Toxicity and Its Harmful Effect on Human Health (icliniq.com)
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